Women's health
Breast health and cancer prevention: nutrition
11/11/10 08:01
In October (breast cancer month) JD Kato and I did a presentation at a local library about breast health and cancer prevention. Here is a summary of some of the more interesting information we shared. Naturopathic medicine has an important role to play in cancer prevention and treatment. One of the most often used naturopathic treatments is dietary change because diet is the most powerful factor in health. You literally are what you eat! So here is an overview of WHY diet is so important to cancer and some examples of dietary choices that will help treat and prevent cancer.
Immune system:
Your immune system is your best defence against cancer. Every day, all day, your body is making potentially cancerous cells and it is your immune system that stands between this potential and uncontrollable cancer growth. A healthy diet provides nutrients that support immune function, while poor dietary choices impair immune function.
Antioxidant-rich foods support the immune system in killing abnormal cells, preventing and treating cancer. Sugar, on the other hand, impairs the activity of your white blood cells, which target and kill cancer cells and coordinate the functioning of your overall immune response.
Inflammation:
As discussed in part 1, chronic inflammation in the body leads to increased cell division, which increases the likelihood of the creation of cancer cells and accelarates cancer growth. Chronic inflammation also increases the body’s production of cortisol, which is an immune suppressing hormone.
What type of fat you consume is often more important than the amount because the fats in your diet directly impact many bodily functions. The compounds EPA and DHA derived from or found in omega 3 fatty acids, particularly fish oil, are powerful anti-inflammatory agents in the body. But saturated fats increase inflammation and trans fats alter cell membranes to encourage inflammation.
Hormonal balance:
The endocrine system, which produces and controls hormones throughout the body has a huge impact on physiological function. Hormones can encourage cancer growth as well as influence immune function and regulate inflammation. With regard to breast cancer, we know that some types of breast cancer are estrogen dependent, but many other hormones throughout the body also relate to breast cancer, such as thyroid hormones, insulin, and cortisol.
Green leafy vegetables contain nutrients that support endocrine organs. A minimum of 5-6 servings per day is recommended. Cruciferous vegetables in particular contain compounds called calcium-D-glucarate and indole-3-carbinol which aid in metabolism and detoxification of hormones. Pesticides used on non-organic produce can contain compounds that mimic estrogen in the body and can increase the risk of many types of cancer as well as overwhelm your detoxification system.
You can download the Environmental Working Group’s Shopper’s Guide to Pesticides, which specifies which produce is best to buy organic, at this web address: www.foodnews.org
Insulin resistance:
Insulin is a hormone that allows sugar to enter cells. Over time, high sugar intake leads to excess insulin production and eventually cells become insensitive to insulin. Cancer cells use sugar as fuel and have more insulin receptors than normal cells, so while other cells are insulin resistant, cancer cells can gain more access to sugar.
Complex carbs include vegetables and whole grains and can help balance blood sugar levels and control weight, both of which prevent and reduce insulin resistance. Complex carbs are high in fibre, which binds to and eliminates toxins and hormones from your body. Try to eat foods as close to their natural state as possible rather than processed foods, which contain more simple carbs, which are easily reduced to sugar and therefore promote insulin resistance.
Digestion and elimination:
Digestion influences all other bodily functions as it is key to absorbing essential nutrients and eliminating waste products and toxins from the body.
Alcohol is an example of a substance that places an additional load on the liver, which can lead to increased toxic load in the body. Over time, this can damage cells and encourage cancer formation. Adequate water intake is necessary for optimal digestion and elimination as your body uses water to carry out many processes essential for life. A simple guideline for water intake is at least 1/2 ounce of water per pound of body weight. So a 128-pound woman should drink about 64 ounces of water daily, which is about 2 litres. Caffeine and alcohol do not count toward this intake and in fact dehydrate the body!
Beyond diet:
So far we’ve covered a lot with regard to diet, but there is so much more! As a naturopathic doctor, I work with patients to address their unique nutritional needs with a plan tailored to them. Beyond diet, I also work to create a personalized plan that may include supplements, herbs, lifestyle counselling, stress reduction, and mental/emotional work to address each patient’s unique needs and the root causes behind their health specific concerns.
With regards to cancer, naturopathic medicine is a powerful tool to both prevent and treat cancer, either alone or in conjunction with conventional cancer treatment.
Immune system:
Your immune system is your best defence against cancer. Every day, all day, your body is making potentially cancerous cells and it is your immune system that stands between this potential and uncontrollable cancer growth. A healthy diet provides nutrients that support immune function, while poor dietary choices impair immune function.
Antioxidant-rich foods support the immune system in killing abnormal cells, preventing and treating cancer. Sugar, on the other hand, impairs the activity of your white blood cells, which target and kill cancer cells and coordinate the functioning of your overall immune response.
Inflammation:
As discussed in part 1, chronic inflammation in the body leads to increased cell division, which increases the likelihood of the creation of cancer cells and accelarates cancer growth. Chronic inflammation also increases the body’s production of cortisol, which is an immune suppressing hormone.
What type of fat you consume is often more important than the amount because the fats in your diet directly impact many bodily functions. The compounds EPA and DHA derived from or found in omega 3 fatty acids, particularly fish oil, are powerful anti-inflammatory agents in the body. But saturated fats increase inflammation and trans fats alter cell membranes to encourage inflammation.
Hormonal balance:
The endocrine system, which produces and controls hormones throughout the body has a huge impact on physiological function. Hormones can encourage cancer growth as well as influence immune function and regulate inflammation. With regard to breast cancer, we know that some types of breast cancer are estrogen dependent, but many other hormones throughout the body also relate to breast cancer, such as thyroid hormones, insulin, and cortisol.
Green leafy vegetables contain nutrients that support endocrine organs. A minimum of 5-6 servings per day is recommended. Cruciferous vegetables in particular contain compounds called calcium-D-glucarate and indole-3-carbinol which aid in metabolism and detoxification of hormones. Pesticides used on non-organic produce can contain compounds that mimic estrogen in the body and can increase the risk of many types of cancer as well as overwhelm your detoxification system.
You can download the Environmental Working Group’s Shopper’s Guide to Pesticides, which specifies which produce is best to buy organic, at this web address: www.foodnews.org
Insulin resistance:
Insulin is a hormone that allows sugar to enter cells. Over time, high sugar intake leads to excess insulin production and eventually cells become insensitive to insulin. Cancer cells use sugar as fuel and have more insulin receptors than normal cells, so while other cells are insulin resistant, cancer cells can gain more access to sugar.
Complex carbs include vegetables and whole grains and can help balance blood sugar levels and control weight, both of which prevent and reduce insulin resistance. Complex carbs are high in fibre, which binds to and eliminates toxins and hormones from your body. Try to eat foods as close to their natural state as possible rather than processed foods, which contain more simple carbs, which are easily reduced to sugar and therefore promote insulin resistance.
Digestion and elimination:
Digestion influences all other bodily functions as it is key to absorbing essential nutrients and eliminating waste products and toxins from the body.
Alcohol is an example of a substance that places an additional load on the liver, which can lead to increased toxic load in the body. Over time, this can damage cells and encourage cancer formation. Adequate water intake is necessary for optimal digestion and elimination as your body uses water to carry out many processes essential for life. A simple guideline for water intake is at least 1/2 ounce of water per pound of body weight. So a 128-pound woman should drink about 64 ounces of water daily, which is about 2 litres. Caffeine and alcohol do not count toward this intake and in fact dehydrate the body!
Beyond diet:
So far we’ve covered a lot with regard to diet, but there is so much more! As a naturopathic doctor, I work with patients to address their unique nutritional needs with a plan tailored to them. Beyond diet, I also work to create a personalized plan that may include supplements, herbs, lifestyle counselling, stress reduction, and mental/emotional work to address each patient’s unique needs and the root causes behind their health specific concerns.
With regards to cancer, naturopathic medicine is a powerful tool to both prevent and treat cancer, either alone or in conjunction with conventional cancer treatment.
Comments
Breast health and cancer prevention: risk factors
09/11/10 17:39
In October (breast cancer month) JD Kato and I did a presentation at a local library about breast health and cancer prevention. Here is a summary of some of the more interesting information we shared. This first part will cover risk factors, which JD discussed. There are several non-modifiable risk factors that most people are aware of, such as age, gender, family history, etc. Let’s focus on risk factors you CAN modify…
Radiation exposure:
Ionizing radiation such as x-rays can damage the DNA of cells promoting mistakes that could lead to development of cancer. The amount of radiation of a mammogram is considered small, but yes mammograms use radiation. Other sources of radiation may be from occupational accidents and radiation treatment.
Smoking:
Smoking raises your risk for many types of cancer: lung, esophageal, bladder, stomach, and others including breast cancer.
Alcohol:
Postmenopausal women who drank alcohol had a 22% higher relative risk of breast cancer than those who do not drink alcohol. It is estimated that every additional 10g of ethanol consumed per day (approximately one drink) was associated with a 10% increase in relative risk.
Recommendation for alcohol intake for women: 0-2 drinks per day, maximum 9 drinks per week
Estrogen:
Estrogen exposure can be a contributing factor to many breast cancers. Therefore, both exogenous (outside the body) and endogenous (inside the body) sources estrogen can increase risk.
Hormone replacement and birth control pills are exogenous sources that contribute to estrogen exposure that can be avoided.
Estrogen production within the body is also important. At puberty the brain (the pituitary) tells the ovaries to start to produce estrogen and because there are receptors in the breast tissue they are signalled to grow and develop. Although they grow in number, the cells of the breast tissue do not fully mature. With each monthly cycle there are fluctuating levels of estrogen, which can contribute to the cells that could possibly develop into cancerous cells. A first full-term pregnancy after the age of 30-35 contributes a slightly higher risk.
While a woman is pregnant, there are even high levels of estrogen and so the breasts enlarge to prepare for breast feeding – again putting a woman at higher risk. When a pregnancy reaches full-term and a woman breast-feeds, then the cells finish their maturation, which then helps protect against them developing into cancer. Breast-feeding for one year is protective against breast cancer. It does not matter if this period of breast-feeding is for one child, or combined over more than one birth.
Body fat and exercise:
After menopause a woman’s ovaries do not produce estrogen as before, so most of the estrogen come from fat tissue. Estrogen comes from testosterone and in fat tissue there is the enzyme called aromatase that converts testosterone to estrogen. So having excessive body fat means you have more of these enzymes to produce estrogen which can stimulate cell reproduction in breast tissue and thus increasing the chance of tumour formation.
Excess body fat, especially around the midsection, promotes inflammation in the body, which is a risk factor for many cancers. Chronic inflammation disrupts normal cell growth and development, which can promote.
Excess body weight and low physical activity together may account for one quarter to one third of all breast cancer cases! Contrast that to 3-5% of breast cancer caused by heredity…
Recommendations for exercise: 30 min 3-5 days per week (initially), then 30-60 min 5-7 days per week
Radiation exposure:
Ionizing radiation such as x-rays can damage the DNA of cells promoting mistakes that could lead to development of cancer. The amount of radiation of a mammogram is considered small, but yes mammograms use radiation. Other sources of radiation may be from occupational accidents and radiation treatment.
Smoking:
Smoking raises your risk for many types of cancer: lung, esophageal, bladder, stomach, and others including breast cancer.
Alcohol:
Postmenopausal women who drank alcohol had a 22% higher relative risk of breast cancer than those who do not drink alcohol. It is estimated that every additional 10g of ethanol consumed per day (approximately one drink) was associated with a 10% increase in relative risk.
Recommendation for alcohol intake for women: 0-2 drinks per day, maximum 9 drinks per week
Estrogen:
Estrogen exposure can be a contributing factor to many breast cancers. Therefore, both exogenous (outside the body) and endogenous (inside the body) sources estrogen can increase risk.
Hormone replacement and birth control pills are exogenous sources that contribute to estrogen exposure that can be avoided.
Estrogen production within the body is also important. At puberty the brain (the pituitary) tells the ovaries to start to produce estrogen and because there are receptors in the breast tissue they are signalled to grow and develop. Although they grow in number, the cells of the breast tissue do not fully mature. With each monthly cycle there are fluctuating levels of estrogen, which can contribute to the cells that could possibly develop into cancerous cells. A first full-term pregnancy after the age of 30-35 contributes a slightly higher risk.
While a woman is pregnant, there are even high levels of estrogen and so the breasts enlarge to prepare for breast feeding – again putting a woman at higher risk. When a pregnancy reaches full-term and a woman breast-feeds, then the cells finish their maturation, which then helps protect against them developing into cancer. Breast-feeding for one year is protective against breast cancer. It does not matter if this period of breast-feeding is for one child, or combined over more than one birth.
Body fat and exercise:
After menopause a woman’s ovaries do not produce estrogen as before, so most of the estrogen come from fat tissue. Estrogen comes from testosterone and in fat tissue there is the enzyme called aromatase that converts testosterone to estrogen. So having excessive body fat means you have more of these enzymes to produce estrogen which can stimulate cell reproduction in breast tissue and thus increasing the chance of tumour formation.
Excess body fat, especially around the midsection, promotes inflammation in the body, which is a risk factor for many cancers. Chronic inflammation disrupts normal cell growth and development, which can promote.
Excess body weight and low physical activity together may account for one quarter to one third of all breast cancer cases! Contrast that to 3-5% of breast cancer caused by heredity…
Recommendations for exercise: 30 min 3-5 days per week (initially), then 30-60 min 5-7 days per week
Breast health talk October 20th
14/10/10 08:11
JD Kato and I will be giving at free talk on breast health on October 20th, 7pm at the Deer Park Library (40 St. Clair Avenue East, Toronto). Call 416-926-0084 to RSVP!
Topics will include:
Breast cancer risk factors
Cancer prevention and treatment strategies:
• Exercise
• Weight loss
• Diet
Breast self-exam
Diagnostics:
• Ultrasound
• Mammography
• Thermography
How naturopathic medicine can help prevent and treat breast cancer
Topics will include:
Breast cancer risk factors
Cancer prevention and treatment strategies:
• Exercise
• Weight loss
• Diet
Breast self-exam
Diagnostics:
• Ultrasound
• Mammography
• Thermography
How naturopathic medicine can help prevent and treat breast cancer
The Story of Cosmetics
17/08/10 22:49
A few weeks ago I shared The Story of Stuff and now there is a new video called The Story of Cosmetics. The makers of these videos have even more at their website, like The Story of Bottled Water and The Story of Electronics (coming soon).
A lot of people wonder why it matters so much what we put on our bodies or what chemicals are in the things we use everyday... My take on it is, why expose myself to harmful stuff if I don’t have to? There are lots of options for cleaning products, cosmetics, personal care, water bottles, food containers, fragrances, etc that are non-toxic and work great, so why not avoid what toxins you can? And why support companies that aren’t looking out for your health? There is so much in life we can’t control, I think we should do the best with what we can.
If you haven’t checked it out yet, the Environmental Working Group’s Skin Deep Cosmetic Safety Database is a great resource!
A lot of people wonder why it matters so much what we put on our bodies or what chemicals are in the things we use everyday... My take on it is, why expose myself to harmful stuff if I don’t have to? There are lots of options for cleaning products, cosmetics, personal care, water bottles, food containers, fragrances, etc that are non-toxic and work great, so why not avoid what toxins you can? And why support companies that aren’t looking out for your health? There is so much in life we can’t control, I think we should do the best with what we can.
If you haven’t checked it out yet, the Environmental Working Group’s Skin Deep Cosmetic Safety Database is a great resource!
Thyroid, iodine, and breast health
03/07/09 10:53
This blog was originally published on December 2, 2008 here.
I wrote a research paper looking the relationships between thyroid function, breast pathologies, and the role of iodine supplementation. This blog is a summary of what I learned. References are listed at the end and can be found on PubMed.
First, thyroid. There is an observed correlation between thyroid dysfunction and breast cancer (1,2,3), particularly hypothyroidism (3,4). Decreased function of the thyroid gland and rising TSH are also associated with a doubling in the risk of development of fibrocystic breast disease (5).
Next, iodine and breasts. Both breast tissue and thyroid tissue concentrate iodine (6) and deficiency of iodine causes “atypical tissue and physiologic changes in both” (7). One researcher noted that “geographic differences in the rates of breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancer appear to be inversely correlated with dietary iodine intake” (8). For example, in Japan seaweed (high in both iodine and selenium) is a major part of the diet and may play a role in the low incidence of both benign and malignant breast disease in that country (9).
A study on rats demonstrated a reduction in breast cancer incidence with iodine treatment (10). With regard to fibrocystic breast disease, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trials (the gold-standard of conventional medicine!) have demonstrated that supplementation with iodide/iodine significantly reduced breast pain, tenderness, and nodularity (11,12).
So how does this work? One theory is that iodine deficiency leads to a state of excess estrogen (13), increasing the risk of a whole host of cancers. Iodine is also believed to suppress tumour growth (14), induce tumour cell death (15), and regulate genes that influence hormone metabolism, cell cycle, growth, and differentiation (16).
Why is this useful information? Everything in the body is connected, particularly the endocrine system. So, when something is going wrong in one area, like thyroid function, there are likely also going to be issues either immediately or down the road with another area, particularly reproductive organs. The causal mechanisms are not clear yet, but it is prudent to assess breast health when patients present with thyroid dysfunction and vice versa. There is evidence to suggest that iodine is effective nutritional treatment for fibrocystic breast disease and it may also be useful in reproductive cancers. Molecular iodine, rather than iodide, was found to be most effective and have the least adverse effects on the thyroid (12).
There is lots of other interesting information that I was not able to get to, such as a deeper look at the interaction of sex hormones with thyroid function and other influences on hormonal balance, such as sleep. Maybe one day I’ll have time to do more research and I’ll post an update!
References:
1. Turken O, NarIn Y, DemIrbas S, Onde ME, Sayan O, KandemIr EG, YaylacI M, Ozturk A. Breast cancer in association with thyroid disorders. Breast Cancer Res. 2003;5(5):R110-3. Epub 2003 Jun 5. PMID: 12927040
2. Saraiva PP, Figueiredo NB, Padovani CR, Brentani MM, Nogueira CR. Profile of thyroid hormones in breast cancer patients. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2005 May;38(5):761-5. Epub 2005 May 25. PMID: 15917958
3. Giani C, Fierabracci P, Bonacci R, Gigliotti A, Campani D, De Negri F, Cecchetti D, Martino E, Pinchera A. Relationship between breast cancer and thyroid disease: relevance of autoimmune thyroid disorders in breast malignancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996 Mar;81(3):990-4.
4. Kuijpens JL, Nyklíctek I, Louwman MW, Weetman TA, Pop VJ, Coebergh JW. Hypothyroidism might be related to breast cancer in post-menopausal women. Thyroid. 2005 Nov;15(11):1253-9. PMID: 16356089
5. Mardaleishvili KG, Nemsadze GG, Metreveli DS, Roinishvili TL. [About correlation of dysfunction of the thyroid gland with fibrocystic diseases in women] Georgian Med News. 2006 Nov;(140):30-2. Russian.
6. Patrick L. Iodine: deficiency and therapeutic considerations. Altern Med Rev. 2008 Jun;13(2):116-27. Review. PMID: 18590348
7. Eskin BA, Grotkowski CE, Connolly CP, Ghent WR. Different tissue responses for iodine and iodide in rat thyroid and mammary glands. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1995 Jul;49(1):9-19. PMID: 7577324
8. Stadel BV. Dietary iodine and risk of breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancer. Lancet. 1976 Apr 24;1(7965):890-1. PMID: 58152
9. Cann SA, van Netten JP, van Netten C. Hypothesis: iodine, selenium and the development of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 2000 Feb;11(2):121-7. Review. PMID: 10710195
10. García-Solís P, Alfaro Y, Anguiano B, Delgado G, Guzman RC, Nandi S, Díaz-Muñoz M, Vázquez-Martínez O, Aceves C. Inhibition of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mammary carcinogenesis by molecular iodine (I2) but not by iodide (I-) treatment Evidence that I2 prevents cancer promotion. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2005 May 31;236(1-2):49-57. Epub 2005 Apr 13. PMID: 15922087
11. Kessler JH. The effect of supraphysiologic levels of iodine on patients with cyclic mastalgia. Breast J. 2004 Jul-Aug;10(4):328-36. PMID: 15239792
12. Ghent WR, Eskin BA, Low DA, Hill LP. Iodine replacement in fibrocystic disease of the breast. Can J Surg. 1993 Oct;36(5):453-60. PMID: 8221402
13. Stadel BV. Dietary iodine and risk of breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancer. Lancet. 1976 Apr 24;1(7965):890-1. PMID: 58152
14. Funahashi H, Imai T, Tanaka Y, Tobinaga J, Wada M, Morita T, Yamada F, Tsukamura K, Oiwa M, Kikumori T, Narita T, Takagi H. Suppressive effect of iodine on DMBA-induced breast tumor growth in the rat. J Surg Oncol. 1996 Mar;61(3):209-13. PMID: 8637209
15. Shrivastava A, Tiwari M, Sinha RA, Kumar A, Balapure AK, Bajpai VK, Sharma R, Mitra K, Tandon A, Godbole MM. Molecular iodine induces caspase-independent apoptosis in human breast carcinoma cells involving the mitochondria-mediated pathway. J Biol Chem. 2006 Jul 14;281(28):19762-71. Epub 2006 May 5. PMID: 16679319
16. Stoddard FR 2nd, Brooks AD, Eskin BA, Johannes GJ. Iodine alters gene expression in the MCF7 breast cancer cell line: evidence for an anti-estrogen effect of iodine. Int J Med Sci. 2008 Jul 8;5(4):189-96. PMID: 18645607
I wrote a research paper looking the relationships between thyroid function, breast pathologies, and the role of iodine supplementation. This blog is a summary of what I learned. References are listed at the end and can be found on PubMed.
First, thyroid. There is an observed correlation between thyroid dysfunction and breast cancer (1,2,3), particularly hypothyroidism (3,4). Decreased function of the thyroid gland and rising TSH are also associated with a doubling in the risk of development of fibrocystic breast disease (5).
Next, iodine and breasts. Both breast tissue and thyroid tissue concentrate iodine (6) and deficiency of iodine causes “atypical tissue and physiologic changes in both” (7). One researcher noted that “geographic differences in the rates of breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancer appear to be inversely correlated with dietary iodine intake” (8). For example, in Japan seaweed (high in both iodine and selenium) is a major part of the diet and may play a role in the low incidence of both benign and malignant breast disease in that country (9).
A study on rats demonstrated a reduction in breast cancer incidence with iodine treatment (10). With regard to fibrocystic breast disease, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trials (the gold-standard of conventional medicine!) have demonstrated that supplementation with iodide/iodine significantly reduced breast pain, tenderness, and nodularity (11,12).
So how does this work? One theory is that iodine deficiency leads to a state of excess estrogen (13), increasing the risk of a whole host of cancers. Iodine is also believed to suppress tumour growth (14), induce tumour cell death (15), and regulate genes that influence hormone metabolism, cell cycle, growth, and differentiation (16).
Why is this useful information? Everything in the body is connected, particularly the endocrine system. So, when something is going wrong in one area, like thyroid function, there are likely also going to be issues either immediately or down the road with another area, particularly reproductive organs. The causal mechanisms are not clear yet, but it is prudent to assess breast health when patients present with thyroid dysfunction and vice versa. There is evidence to suggest that iodine is effective nutritional treatment for fibrocystic breast disease and it may also be useful in reproductive cancers. Molecular iodine, rather than iodide, was found to be most effective and have the least adverse effects on the thyroid (12).
There is lots of other interesting information that I was not able to get to, such as a deeper look at the interaction of sex hormones with thyroid function and other influences on hormonal balance, such as sleep. Maybe one day I’ll have time to do more research and I’ll post an update!
References:
1. Turken O, NarIn Y, DemIrbas S, Onde ME, Sayan O, KandemIr EG, YaylacI M, Ozturk A. Breast cancer in association with thyroid disorders. Breast Cancer Res. 2003;5(5):R110-3. Epub 2003 Jun 5. PMID: 12927040
2. Saraiva PP, Figueiredo NB, Padovani CR, Brentani MM, Nogueira CR. Profile of thyroid hormones in breast cancer patients. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2005 May;38(5):761-5. Epub 2005 May 25. PMID: 15917958
3. Giani C, Fierabracci P, Bonacci R, Gigliotti A, Campani D, De Negri F, Cecchetti D, Martino E, Pinchera A. Relationship between breast cancer and thyroid disease: relevance of autoimmune thyroid disorders in breast malignancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996 Mar;81(3):990-4.
4. Kuijpens JL, Nyklíctek I, Louwman MW, Weetman TA, Pop VJ, Coebergh JW. Hypothyroidism might be related to breast cancer in post-menopausal women. Thyroid. 2005 Nov;15(11):1253-9. PMID: 16356089
5. Mardaleishvili KG, Nemsadze GG, Metreveli DS, Roinishvili TL. [About correlation of dysfunction of the thyroid gland with fibrocystic diseases in women] Georgian Med News. 2006 Nov;(140):30-2. Russian.
6. Patrick L. Iodine: deficiency and therapeutic considerations. Altern Med Rev. 2008 Jun;13(2):116-27. Review. PMID: 18590348
7. Eskin BA, Grotkowski CE, Connolly CP, Ghent WR. Different tissue responses for iodine and iodide in rat thyroid and mammary glands. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1995 Jul;49(1):9-19. PMID: 7577324
8. Stadel BV. Dietary iodine and risk of breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancer. Lancet. 1976 Apr 24;1(7965):890-1. PMID: 58152
9. Cann SA, van Netten JP, van Netten C. Hypothesis: iodine, selenium and the development of breast cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 2000 Feb;11(2):121-7. Review. PMID: 10710195
10. García-Solís P, Alfaro Y, Anguiano B, Delgado G, Guzman RC, Nandi S, Díaz-Muñoz M, Vázquez-Martínez O, Aceves C. Inhibition of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mammary carcinogenesis by molecular iodine (I2) but not by iodide (I-) treatment Evidence that I2 prevents cancer promotion. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2005 May 31;236(1-2):49-57. Epub 2005 Apr 13. PMID: 15922087
11. Kessler JH. The effect of supraphysiologic levels of iodine on patients with cyclic mastalgia. Breast J. 2004 Jul-Aug;10(4):328-36. PMID: 15239792
12. Ghent WR, Eskin BA, Low DA, Hill LP. Iodine replacement in fibrocystic disease of the breast. Can J Surg. 1993 Oct;36(5):453-60. PMID: 8221402
13. Stadel BV. Dietary iodine and risk of breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancer. Lancet. 1976 Apr 24;1(7965):890-1. PMID: 58152
14. Funahashi H, Imai T, Tanaka Y, Tobinaga J, Wada M, Morita T, Yamada F, Tsukamura K, Oiwa M, Kikumori T, Narita T, Takagi H. Suppressive effect of iodine on DMBA-induced breast tumor growth in the rat. J Surg Oncol. 1996 Mar;61(3):209-13. PMID: 8637209
15. Shrivastava A, Tiwari M, Sinha RA, Kumar A, Balapure AK, Bajpai VK, Sharma R, Mitra K, Tandon A, Godbole MM. Molecular iodine induces caspase-independent apoptosis in human breast carcinoma cells involving the mitochondria-mediated pathway. J Biol Chem. 2006 Jul 14;281(28):19762-71. Epub 2006 May 5. PMID: 16679319
16. Stoddard FR 2nd, Brooks AD, Eskin BA, Johannes GJ. Iodine alters gene expression in the MCF7 breast cancer cell line: evidence for an anti-estrogen effect of iodine. Int J Med Sci. 2008 Jul 8;5(4):189-96. PMID: 18645607